Mastering The Law of The Land: 100

Mastering tha Law of tha land through due diligence. 

This will be the first of a series of Law of the land drops. You all know I'm big on solid foundations, y'all should know I'm starting with the shoes. Definitions:
This will not be a "get fix quick thread" I observe the rules of the game, so if you want the game in this thread you must pay duly.

Agency.—Much of the business of our day is done by agents or persons who represent others. The most general division is into general and special agents. A general agent is one who has authority to act for his principal or person he represents in all matters, quite as the principal himself could do; or in some of his matters. Thus if a principal had a farm he might have a general agent to act as his farmer; if he owned a mill, another general agent who had charge of it. If he had two mills, he might have a general agent for each, and so on.

A special agent is authorized to do a specific thing, to sell a home, buy a horse, or effect some particular end or purpose. While this distinction is plain enough in many cases, in others the lines run so close together that it is difficult to decide whether one is a general or special agent.

Whenever one acts as a general agent he is supposed to have all the authority that general agents possess who thus act for their principals, unless the person who is dealing with him knows of the restriction on his authority. Suppose one goes to the office of a general insurance agent to get insurance on his home. A policy is taken and afterwards the house burns up. The company declines to pay because the agent made a lower rate than was authorized by his company. The insured however knew nothing about the restriction, and supposed that the agent had the same authority as other insurance agents have concerning rates. The company would be obliged to pay. But if the [7]insured knew that restrictions had been put on the agent and that he was violating them in giving him the lower rate, the company would not be liable.
One who deals with a special agent must find out what authority he possesses; therefore more care is needful in dealing with a special than with a general agent. His authority must be strictly pursued. Thus it is said that a person dealing with him "acts at his own peril," is "put upon inquiry," "is chargeable with notice of the extent of his authority," "it is his duty to ascertain," "he is bound to inquire," "and if he does not he must suffer the consequences."

In some cases the law creates an agency. Thus an unpaid vendor of goods sometimes has authority to sell them, so has a pledgee of goods outside the authority conferred by the contract pledging them. A married woman whose husband does not supply her has a limited power to buy necessaries on her husband's credit, which prevails notwithstanding any objection he may make. A minor sometimes has the same power.
A person can act as an agent for another who cannot act for himself. Minors therefore can thus act. Besides individuals, corporations often act for others.

The authority of an agent may be given in writing, a power of attorney so called, or he may act, and often does, without written authority, especially a general agent. To this rule there is one well understood exception. If an agent is required in executing his authority to sign a deed or other writing, especially a sealed writing, his authority must also be equally great. In executing a deed therefore his authority must be in writing under seal, and when the deed is recorded, the agent's [8]written authority should also be recorded; this is the usual practice. If this is not done, some person who afterward wished to purchase the land might object because the recorded title was defective.

A particular usage or custom also affects an agent's powers. If the principal confers on him authority to transact business of a well-defined nature, bounded by well-defined usage and customs, the law presumes the agency was created with reference to them. This protection affects agents and third persons alike, the latter therefore who act in good faith in such dealings are protected against secret limitations of which they had no notice.

An agent has no authority to purchase his principal's property. To do this, in a sense, would be to purchase of himself. The temptation to do this is sometimes very great, too great for him to withstand, and so he resorts to a crooked method for accomplishing his end. He sells the property to another party who afterward sells it back to him. The worst violators of this principle have been railway receivers, who have taken advantage of their position to get control of the property entrusted to them at a sum much less than its real value. Such sales can be set aside by proper legal procedure. By the modern rule they are not void but are voidable, that is, can be set aside if the creditors or other interested parties wish to do so.

Whenever therefore one deals with a general agent and his authority is disputed, unless there be restrictions known to the person dealing with him, the liability of his principal turns on the answer to the general question, what authority do general agents like himself have. This is simply a question of fact, to be determined like every other [9]question of fact by the court in which the controversy is pending.

Another way of rendering a principal liable for the act of his agent is by ratifying it. Suppose A professed to be the agent of B in building a house for C, and built it so badly that C sued B to recover damages, whose defense was, that A was not his agent. Suppose, however, that B accepted payment for the house, this would be a ratification of A's authority to act for B even if he did not have proper authority in the beginning. Suppose A had authority to sell goods for B but not to collect payment, and someone should pay him and he ran off with the money, could his principal still collect the money of the buyer of the goods? This is a hard case, and has happened many times. The buyer usually is required to pay the second time. But if B, notwithstanding his direction to his agent not to collect payment, should receive it such conduct would operate as a ratification.
Whether the authorized act arises from a contract or from a wrong or tort, whoever with knowledge of all the facts adopts it as his own, or knowingly appropriates the benefits, which another has assumed to do in his behalf, will be deemed to have assumed responsibility for the act. Of course, such action does not render an act valid that was invalid before; its character in this respect is not changed by anything the ratifier may do.

Can a forgery be ratified? The right of the state to pursue the forger cannot be defeated by its ratification, but so far as the act may be regarded merely as the act of an unauthorized agent, it may be ratified like any other. Mechem says that if at the time of signing, the person doing so purported to act as agent, the act might be ratified.

[10]Again, a principal cannot accept part of an agent's act and reject the remainder. The acceptance or rejection must be complete.

In appointing an agent the principal has in mind the qualifications of the person appointed, he cannot therefore without his principal's consent, designate or substitute another person for himself. This rule though does not prevent him from employing other persons for a minor service. Indeed, in many cases a general agency requires the employment of many persons to execute the business. How far one may go in thus employing others to execute the details, and how much ought to be done by the general agent himself, depends on the nature of the business. The inquiry would be one of fact, to what extent is a general agent in his particular business expected or assumed to do the things himself.

One rule to guide an agent is this: when the act to be done is purely mechanical or ministerial, requiring no direction or personal skill, an agent may appoint a subagent. Thus an agent who is appointed to execute a promissory note, or to sign a subscription agreement, or to execute a deed, may appoint another to do these things. Likewise an agent who is authorized to sell real estate with discretionary power to fix the price and other terms, may employ a subagent to look up a purchaser, or to show the land to one who is desirous of purchasing.
When a person is really acting as an agent, but this is not known by the persons with whom he is doing business, he is liable to them as if he were the principal. It often happens for various reasons that agents do not disclose their principals. Suppose a dealer finds out that the agent presumably [11]acting for himself was, in truth, acting for another, could the real principal be held responsible and the agent escape, or could both be held? The answer is, after discovering the real principal, both can be held, or either of them. The failure of an agent to disclose his agency will not make him individually liable if the other party knew that he was dealing with a principal with whom he had had dealings through the agent's predecessor. Notice of the agency to one member of a firm is not sufficient notice to the firm to release the agent from personal responsibility in subsequent transactions with another member who did not know and was not informed of the agency. Again, the liability must be determined by the conditions existing at the time of the contract, his subsequent disclosure will not relieve the agent. Finally, while the agent may be held in such a case, the principal also is liable, except on instruments negotiable and under seal, on the discovery of his relationship as principal.

While secret instructions to an agent that are unknown to persons dealing with him do not bind them, the principal is liable for any acts within the scope of his agent's authority connected with the business conducted by his agent for him. Some very difficult questions arise in applying this rule. A car conductor is instructed to treat passengers civilly and to use no harsh means with them, save in extreme cases. How far may a conductor go with a disorderly passenger? Very likely he would be justified in putting him off; suppose the conductor was angry and administered hard and needless kicks in the operation? His principal surely would not be liable, though the conductor doubtless would be. Suppose in buying a railway ticket the agent loses his temper and calls you a liar and a thief, you [12]would have an action against him for slander, unless you happened to be one, but you would have no action against his principal for the company did not employ him to slander its patrons; to do this was clearly not in the scope of his employment.

An agent must not act for both parties in any transaction unless this is understood by both of them. Nor can an agent receive any personal profit from a transaction. Whatever profit there may be should be given to the principal. Thus if an agent is authorized to buy a piece of property for his principal and buys it for himself, or hides the transaction under the name of another, the principal, after discovering what his agent has done, can proceed to obtain the property.

An agent must be faithful and exercise reasonable skill and diligence. Money belonging to the principal should be deposited in the principal's name, or, if in the agent's name, his agency should be added; otherwise if the bank failed the agent would be responsible for the loss. Again, if the agent deposited the money in his own name the true owner could proceed against the bank to recover it.

A principal is liable for the statements and representations of his agent that have been expressly authorized. He is also liable even for false and fraudulent representations made in the course of the agent's employment, especially those resulting in a contract from which the principal reaped a benefit. Even though the statements may not have been expressly authorized, such authority may be implied by law because they are the natural and ordinary incidents of the agent's position. Thus the position of a business manager often calls for a great variety of acts, orders, notices, and the [13]like, and statements made while performing them are regarded as within the line of his duty.

An agency may end at a fixed time, or when the particular object for creating it has been accomplished, or by agreement of the parties. In many cases an agency is created for an indefinite period, and in these either party can terminate it whenever he desires. There are some limitations to this principle. Neither party can wantonly sever the relation at the loss of the other; and if one of them did he would be liable for the damage sustained by the other. Likewise if the agent has an interest of his own in the undertaking the principal cannot terminate it before its completion without the agent's consent. Such a rule is needful for his security. The bankruptcy of a business agent operates as a revocation of his authority, but not when the act to be done is of a personal nature like the execution of a deed.

If the principal becomes insane and unable to exercise an intelligent direction of his business, his condition operates as a revocation or suspension for the time being of his agent's authority. If on recovering, he manifests no will to terminate his agent's authority, it may be considered as a mere suspension, and his assent to acts done during the suspension may be inferred from his forbearing to express dissent when they come to his knowledge. Likewise an agent's insanity terminates or suspends the agency for the time being unless he has an interest of his own in the matter. Partial derangement or monomania will not have that effect unless the mania relates to the agency, or destroys the agent's ability to perform it.

Again, the marriage of a principal in some cases, unless a statute has changed the common law, will [14]revoke the power previously given, especially when its execution will defeat or impair rights acquired by marriage. Thus should a man give a power of attorney to another to sell his homestead, but before effecting a sale the principal should marry, his marriage would revoke the power. By marrying the wife acquires an interest in the property which cannot be taken away from her without her consent by joining in a deed of conveyance with her husband. Likewise the marriage of a woman would operate to revoke a power of attorney previously given by her whenever its execution would defeat the rights acquired by her husband. An agent's marriage usually will not affect the continuance of his agency.
When an agency is terminated it is often needful for the principal to notify all customers for his protection, otherwise they might continue to do business with the agent, supposing he was thus acting, and involve him perhaps in heavy loss. This rule applies especially to partnerships, each member of which is an agent with general authority to do the kind of business in which it is engaged.

If the authority of an agent in writing is revoked, but is still left with him and is shown to a third person who, having no knowledge of the revocation, makes a contract with him, the principal will be held for its execution.
Another rule of law may be given. The law assumes that any knowledge acquired by an agent concerning his principal's business, will be communicated to his principal, who is bound thereby. This rule though is often difficult to apply. Thus, if a cashier of a bank should learn that a note was defective, which was afterward discounted by his bank, it would be regarded as having knowledge of [15]the defect, because it was the cashier's duty to inform the proper officials before they discounted it.

The death of either agent or principal terminates the agency except in cases of personal interest. And when an agent has appointed a substitute or subagent without direct authority, and for his own convenience, the agent's death annuls the authority of the subagent or substitute, even though the agent was given the right of substitution. But if the subagent's authority is derived directly from the principal, it is not affected by the agent's death.

Agreement to Purchase Land.—An agreement to purchase land must be in writing to be valid. Oral or parol agreements may be made to do many things, but everywhere the law makes an exception of agreements relating to land purchases. A statute that is quite similar in the states requires this agreement to be in writing and signed by the party against whom it is to be enforced. Thus if the seller wishes to enforce such an agreement, he must produce a writing signed by the purchaser; if the latter wishes to hold the seller, he must do the same thing. The better way is to have the writing signed by both parties.

How complete must the writing be? It need not mention the sum to be paid for the land; it can be signed with a lead pencil: a stamp signature will suffice. The entire agreement need not be on one piece of paper. If it can be made out from written correspondence between the two parties this will be enough.

To this rule of law are some exceptions. Therefore if an oral agreement for the sale of land is [16]followed by putting the buyer into possession, the law will compel the seller to give him a deed. The proceeding would consist of a petition addressed to a court of equity, which would inquire into the facts, and if they were true, would compel the seller to give the purchaser a deed of the land. The reason for making this exception is, the purchaser would be a trespasser had he no right to be there: to justify his possession the law permits him to prove, if he can, his purchase of the land; and if he has bought it, of course he ought to have a deed of his title.

Once, a purchaser who made an oral agreement and paid part of the purchase money could compel the seller to give him a deed, and many still think such action is sufficient to bind the bargain. This is no longer the law. The practice gave rise to much fraud: A would assert that he gave money to B to pay for land when in truth it was given for some other purpose. So the courts abandoned the rule founded on the part payment of the purchase price. A can however get back his money.
An option to purchase land, contained in an agreement to sell, must be exercised within a reasonable time, if none is fixed in the agreement.

Bankruptcy.—Before the enactment of the federal Bankruptcy Act of 1898, every state had a bankruptcy act of its own, which was generally called an insolvency law. The federal act has superseded these by virtue of the power granted to congress in the federal constitution "to establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States."

The United States district courts in the several states are made courts of bankruptcy and have power to adjudge all persons bankrupt who have their principal places of business, residence and domicile within their respective districts; and jurisdiction also over others who simply have property within their jurisdiction.

Any person who owes debts, or business corporation, may become a voluntary bankrupt. So may an alien. He may also become an involuntary bankrupt if he has had his principal place of business here, or has been domiciled within the jurisdiction of the court for the preceding six months, or has property within its jurisdiction. Some corporations are still denied voluntary action, as well as minors and insane persons.

Who may become an involuntary bankrupt? Any person, except a wage-earner, or farmer, any unincorporated company, and any corporation engaged principally in manufacturing, trading, printing, publishing, or mercantile pursuits, owing debts to the amount of one thousand dollars. What is a manufacturing corporation, within the meaning of the law, is not even yet fully known. A corporation engaged principally in smelting ores is one; [32]and a mining corporation, whose principal business is to buy and sell ores, is deemed a trading corporation and may become an involuntary bankrupt.

Next we may inquire, what are acts of bankruptcy? One of them is an admission of a person's inability to pay his debts. And this may be done by a corporation through its properly organized officers. Another act of bankruptcy is to convey, transfer, conceal or remove property with the intention to defraud creditors. And by concealment is meant the separation of some tangible thing like money from the debtor's estate, and secrete it from those who have a right to seize it for payment of their debts. The transfers of property covered by the act are those which the common law regards as fraudulent. If, for example, at the time of the transfer of his property one is so much indebted that it will embarrass him in paying his debts, the transfer will be deemed fraudulent; but a voluntary transfer, made by one who is free from debt, cannot be impeached by subsequent creditors. The intention to hinder, delay or defraud creditors is a question of fact to be ascertained by proper judicial inquiry.

A general assignment for the benefit of creditors is an act of bankruptcy. Likewise a general assignment for the benefit of creditors made by the majority of the board of directors and of the stockholders is an act of bankruptcy. A petition for the appointment of a receiver of a corporation under a state statute is not an assignment for the benefit of creditors and therefore is not an act of bankruptcy.

Another act of bankruptcy is to suffer or permit, when one is insolvent, any creditor to acquire a preference through legal proceedings. The term preference includes not only a transfer of property, [33]but also the payment of money within four months from the time of filing his petition in bankruptcy. It is immaterial to whom the transfer is made if the purpose be to prefer one creditor to another. Like a fraudulent transfer the intent to prefer must be proved, though this may sometimes be presumed, as when the necessary consequence of a transfer or payment made by an insolvent debtor is to liquidate the debt of one creditor to the entire or partial exclusion of others.

Passing to the filing of the petition a voluntary petitioner should file his petition in the court of bankruptcy in the judicial district where he has principally resided for the preceding six months. When there is no estate and no claim has been proved and no trustee has been appointed, a bankrupt may withdraw his petition on paying the costs and expenses. The petition must be accompanied by a schedule of the petitioner's property, showing its kind and amount, location, money value, and a list of his creditors and their residences when known, the amount due to them, the security they have, and a claim to legal exemptions, if having any. After filing a voluntary petition the judge makes an adjudication. He may do this ex parte, that is without notice to creditors.

A petition may be filed against a person who is insolvent and has committed an act of bankruptcy within four months after such action. Three or more creditors who have provable claims amounting to five hundred dollars in excess of securities held against a debtor may file the petition, or if all the creditors are less than twelve, then one of them may file the petition provided the debtor owes him the above stated amount. Creditors holding claims which are secured, or have priority, [34]must not be considered in determining the number of creditors and the amount of claims for instituting involuntary proceedings. The petition should state the names and residences of the petitioning creditors, also that of the bankrupt, his principal place of business, the nature of it, his act of bankruptcy, that it occurred within four months of the filing of the petition, and that the amount of the claims against him exceed five hundred dollars. The petition must be signed and properly verified, and may be afterward amended for cause in the interest of justice. On the filing of the petition a writ of subpœna is issued addressed to the bankrupt commanding him to appear before the court at the place and on the day mentioned to answer the petition. The next step, after serving the petition, is for the bankrupt to file his answer. Meanwhile his property may be seized by a marshal or receiver on proof that he is neglecting it or that it is deteriorating.

Within ten days after one has been judicially declared to be a bankrupt, he must file in court a schedule of his property, including a list of his creditors and the security held by them. Then follows the first meeting of the bankrupt's creditors, within thirty days after the adjudication. The judge or referee must be present at this meeting, also the bankrupt if required by the court. Before proceeding with other business the referee may allow or disallow the claims of creditors presented at the meeting, and may publicly examine the bankrupt, or he may be examined at the instance of any creditor. At this meeting the creditors may elect a trustee.

Subsequent meetings may be held at any time and place by all the creditors whose claims have [35]been allowed by written consent: the court also may call a meeting whenever one fourth of those who have proved their claims file a written request to that effect.

Only a creditor who owns a demand or provable claim can vote at creditors' meetings. Nor can other creditors through filing objections to a claim prevent a bona fide claimant from voting. A creditor of an individual member of a bankrupt partnership cannot vote. Nor can creditors holding claims that are secured or that have priority vote only to a limited extent, so far as their claims are on the same basis as other creditors. To entitle secured and preferred creditors to vote at the first meeting on the whole of their claims, they must surrender their securities or priorities. If a portion of a creditor's debt is secured and a portion is unsecured, he may vote on the unsecured portion. An attorney, agent, or proxy may represent and vote at creditors' meetings, first presenting written authority, which must be filed with the referee. The referee who presides at the first meeting makes up or decides on its membership. Matters are decided at the meeting by a majority vote in number and amount of claims of all the creditors whose claims have been allowed and are present.

The next stage in bankruptcy proceedings is the proving and allowance of claims. Only such debts are provable as existed at the time of filing the petition. Every debt which may be recovered either at law or in equity may be proved in bankruptcy. A claim barred by the statute of limitations is not provable, nor is a contingent liability. On the other hand a debt founded on a contract express or implied may be proved, for example, damages arising from a breach of a contract prior to [36]the adjudication in bankruptcy. Again, if there are agreements or covenants in a contract of a continuing character the bankrupt is still liable on them notwithstanding his discharge in bankruptcy. If the amount of a claim is unliquidated the act sets forth the mode of proceeding. Among other claims that may be proved are judgments, debts founded on an open account, and rents.

The claims of creditors who have received preferences are not allowed unless they surrender them. Thus money paid on account by an insolvent debtor must be surrendered before a claim for the balance due on the account can be proved. If proceedings are begun by the trustee to set aside a preferential transfer to a creditor who puts in a defense, he cannot thereafter surrender his preference and prove his claim. If a creditor in proving his debt fails to mention his security, if he has any, he will be deemed to have elected to prove his claim as unsecured.

Claims that have been allowed may be reconsidered for a sufficient reason and reallowed or rejected in whole or in part, as justice may require, at any time before the closing of the estate. The reëxamination may be had on the application of the trustee or of any creditor by the referee, witnesses may be called to give evidence, and the referee may expunge or reduce the claim or adhere to the original allowance.

The appointment of the trustee by the creditors at their first meeting is subject to the approval or disapproval of the referee or the judge. Should the creditors make no appointment the court appoints one. As soon as he has been appointed it is the duty of the referee to notify him in person or by mail of his appointment. If he fails to qualify [37]or a vacancy occurs, the creditors have an opportunity to make another appointment. If a trustee accepts he must give a bond with sureties for the faithful performance of his duties. He may also be removed for cause after notice by the judge only. Should he die or be removed while serving, no suit that he was prosecuting or defending will abate but will be continued by his successor.

The trustee represents the bankrupt debtor as the custodian of all his property that is not exempt; also the creditors, and gathers all the bankrupt's property from every source and protects and disposes of it for the best interests of the creditors, and pays their claims. In short, he succeeds to all the interests of the bankrupt, is an officer of the court and subject to its orders and directions. He must deposit all moneys received in one of the designated depositories, can disburse money only by check or draft, and at the final meeting of the creditors must present a detailed statement of his administration of the estate. During the period of settlement he must make a report to the court in writing of the condition of the estate, the money on hand, and other details within the first month after his appointment, and bi-monthly thereafter unless the court orders otherwise.

The federal Bankruptcy Act prescribes what property passes to the trustee and also what is exempt. Whatever property on which a levy could have been made by judicial process against the bankrupt passes to the trustee. On the other hand, the income given to a legatee for life under a will providing it shall not be subject to the claims of creditors does not pass to the trustee. If the bankrupt has an insurance policy with a cash surrender value payable to himself or personal representatives [38]he may pay or secure this sum to the trustee and continue to hold the policy. And a policy of insurance payable to the wife, children, or other kin of the bankrupt is no part of the estate and does not pass to the trustee.
After one month, and within a year from the adjudication of bankruptcy, the bankrupt may apply for a discharge. The petition must state concisely the orders of the court and the proceedings in his case. Creditors must have at least ten days' notice by mail of the petition, and then the judge hears the application for discharge, and considers the proofs in opposition by the parties in interest. Unless some creditor objects and specifies his ground of objection, the petition will be granted. The Bankruptcy Act states several reasons for refusing a discharge, especially when the bankrupt has concealed his property instead of making an honest, truthful statement respecting it, or has not kept proper books of account with the fraudulent intent to conceal his true financial condition and defraud his creditors.

Lastly a person may be punished by imprisonment for two years or less on conviction of having knowingly and fraudulently concealed, while a bankrupt or after his discharge, any property belonging to his estate as a bankrupt, or made a false oath in any bankruptcy proceeding, or made any false claim against his estate or used such a claim in making a composition with his creditors.

Beneficial Associations.—Beneficial associations possess a varied aspect, they are both social and business organizations. Often the members are bound together by secret obligations and pledges. Trades-unions have a double nature, they are [39]created for both beneficial and business purposes. Originally their beneficial character was the more important feature. Benefit societies may be purely voluntary associations or incorporated either by statute or charter.

The articles of association formed by the members are essentially an agreement among them by which they become bound to do specified things and incur liabilities. They thus establish a law for themselves somewhat like a charter of a corporation. They may adopt such rules as they like provided they are not contrary to the laws of the land. As the members, having made the rules, are presumed to know them, they are therefore bound by them.

The legal status of such associations, their right to sue and be sued, the liability of the members to the public for the debts of the association, though most important questions, are not as well settled as they might be. In many states statutes exist defining their right to sue and be sued, and their liability to creditors. Yet these statutes do not cover all cases. Generally persons who associate for charitable or benevolent purposes do not regard themselves in a legal sense as partners. Nevertheless in fixing their liability to creditors, dividing their property, and closing up their affairs, the courts often, though not always, treat their association as a partnership, and the members as partners. Thus the highest court in New York declared that an unincorporated lodge, which had been mis-managed, was not a partnership. The members sought to dissolve the lodge, and distribute its property. The court said there was no power to compel the payment of dues, and the rights of a member ceased after his failure to meet his annual subscription. On the other hand, the supreme [40]court in the same state held that the members of a voluntary association were liable to its creditors by common law principles. "Where such a body of men join themselves together for social intercourse and pleasure, and assume a name under which they commence to incur liabilities by opening an account, they become jointly liable for any indebtedness thus incurred, and if either of them wishes to avoid his personal responsibility by withdrawal from the body, it is his duty to notify the creditors of such withdrawal."

If one or more members order work to be done or purchase supplies, he or they are personally liable unless credit was given to the association.

What can the members do? They cannot change the purpose for which the association was formed without the consent of all, still less can the executive board convert the association into a corporation. No member has a proprietary interest in the property, nor right to a proportionate part while he is a member, or after his withdrawal. Should an association dissolve, then the members may divide its property among themselves.

Sometimes a quarrel springs up in one of these associations, the members divide, who shall have the property? The members of more than one church organization have fought this question, first among themselves, afterwards in the courts. Suppose a quarrel breaks out in a branch association and two parties are formed, which of them is entitled to the property? The party that adheres to the laws and usages of the general organization is regarded as the true association, and is therefore entitled to the enjoyment of the property. Though that party may be a minority of the faithful few, the members are enough to continue the organization.

[41]Sometimes societies of a quasi religious character exist which persons join, surrendering their property and receiving support. Suppose a member should leave, and afterwards sue to recover his property. This has been attempted, and usually ends in failure.

Are benefit societies charities? This question is important from the taxpayer's view, as charitable associations are taxed less than others or perhaps entirely relieved. An Indiana court has decided that a corporation which promises to pay a fixed sum as a benefit during a member's illness—he of course paying his dues—is not a purely benevolent organization, and therefore not exempt from taxation. Masonic lodges on the other hand, are generally regarded as charitable institutions. "The true test," says a judicial tribunal, "is to be found in the objects of the institution."

Again, a voluntary association may conduct in such a way as to create the impression or belief that it is a corporation, and is forbidden from denying its corporate liability for an injury or loss to a third person. It is a familiar rule that a person who transacts business with a partnership in the partnership name may hold all the members liable as partners, though he did not know all their names. This rule has sometimes been applied to a voluntary association, making it responsible as a corporation.

The articles of association regulate the admission of members. A physician who applied for membership in a medical society was rejected because of unprofessional conduct. A code of medical ethics adopted by the society was declared to be binding only on the members, and therefore did not touch the conduct of one prior to his becoming a member of the society. If the membership of a society is [42]confined to persons having the same occupation, a false representation concerning one's occupation would be a good reason for his expulsion. In admitting a member, if no form of election has been prescribed, each candidate must be elected separately. This must also be done at a regular meeting or at one properly called for that purpose. A call therefore to transact any business that may be legally presented is not sufficient.

If a society requires a ceremony of initiation, is the election of a member so complete that he is entitled to benefits without proper initiation? In one of the cases the court said: "The entire system, its existence and objects, are based upon initiation. We think, there can be no membership without it, and no benefit, pecuniary or otherwise, without it."

Controversies concerning property rights of religious societies are generally decided by one of three rules: (1) "was the property a fund which is in question devoted to the express terms of the gift, grant or sale by which it was acquired, to the support of any specific religious doctrine or belief or was it acquired for the general use of the society for religious purposes with no other limitation; (2) is the society which owned it of the strictly independent or congregational form of church government, owing no submission to any organization outside of the congregation; (3) or is it one of a number of such societies, united to form a more general body of churches, with ecclesiastical control in the general association over the members and societies of which it is composed."

Many benefit societies provide for the payment of money to their sick members. The rules providing for the payment of these may be changed at any time as the constitution or articles of association of [43]a society may prescribe. Consequently an amendment may be made diminishing the weekly allowance to a member who is sick, and also the time of allowing it. Of course in applying for the benefits a member must follow the modes prescribed.

The power to expel members is incident to every society or association unless organized primarily for gain. Gainful corporations have no such power unless it has been granted by their charter or by statute. The revision of the list of members by dropping names is equivalent to the expulsion of those whose names are dropped, and by a majority vote or larger one as the rules of the society may require. Nor can the power of expulsion be transferred from the general body to a committee or officer. The power to expel must be exercised in good faith, not arbitrarily or maliciously, and its sentence is conclusive like that of a judicial tribunal. Nor will a court interfere with the decision of a society except: first, when the decision was contrary to natural justice and the member had no opportunity to explain the charge against him; secondly, when the rules of the association expelling him were not observed; thirdly, when its action against him was malicious. Nor will a court interfere because there have been irregularities in the proceedings, unless these were of a grave character.

The charges must be serious, a violation of a reasonable by-law is a sufficient charge. To obtain, by feigning a qualification which did not exist, membership in a trades-union is sufficient cause for expulsion; so is fraud in representing one's self in his application for membership when in fact he has an incurable disease. On the other hand, the following charges are not sufficient to justify expulsion or suspension: slander against the society, illegally [44]drawing aid in time of sickness, defrauding the society out of a small sum of money, villifying a member, disrespectful and contemptuous language to associates, saying the lodge would not pay and never intended to pay, ungentlemanly conduct. In harmony with a fundamental rule of law, a member who has once been acquitted cannot be tried again for the same offense.

As subordinate lodges of a benefit society are constituent parts of the superior governing body, there may be an expulsion from membership in a subordinate lodge for violating laws which generally caused expulsion from the society itself, and there may be a conditional expulsion or suspension. If an assessment is not paid at the fixed time, its non-payment, by the laws of the order, works a suspension, though a member may be restored by complying with the laws of the order.

An appeal by a member of a subordinate lodge from a vote of expulsion does not abate by his death while the appeal is pending. If, therefore, the judgment of the lodge is reversed, the beneficiary of the member is entitled to the benefits due on the member's death. A member who has been wrongfully expelled may be restored by a mandamus proceeding issued by a court. Before making the order the court will inquire into the facts and satisfy itself whether in expelling the applicant the society has properly acted in accord with its rules. Unless some rule or statute forbids, a member of a voluntary association may withdraw at any time. When doing so, however, he cannot avoid any obligations incurred by him to the association. On the other hand, it cannot, after his withdrawal, impose any other obligations on him.

It has often been attempted to hold the members [45]of an association liable personally for a promised benefit in time of sickness. Says Bacon: "It may be a question of construction in each particular case whether the members are personally liable or not. The better rule seems to be that the members are not held personally liable."

An association cannot by its constitution or by-laws confer judicial powers on its officers to adjudge a forfeiture of property rights, or to deprive lodges or members of their property and give it to another, or to other members. To allow associations to do this is contrary to public policy. For the same reason an agreement to refer future controversies to arbitration cannot be enforced; it in effect deprives a party of his rights under the law. He may do this in a known case, this indeed is constantly done, but one cannot bar himself in advance from a resort to the courts for some future controversy of which he has no knowledge at the time of the agreement. This is a rule of law of the widest application.

Broker.—A broker, unlike an auctioneer, usually has no special property in the goods he is authorized to sell. Ordinarily also he must sell them in the name of the principal, and his sales are private. He receives a commission usually called brokerage. He can act only as the agent of the other party when the terms of the contract are settled and he is instructed to finish it. Brokers are of many kinds. They relate to bills and notes, stocks, shipping, insurance, real estate, pawned goods, merchandise, etc. A bill and note broker who does not disclose the principal's name is liable like other agents as a principal. He is also held to an implied authority, not only to sell, but that the signatures of all the [46]parties thereon are genuine. Unless he indorses it he does not warrant their solvency.

An insurance broker is ordinarily employed by the person seeking insurance, and is therefore unlike an insurance agent, who is a representative of an insurance company, and usually has the authority of a general agent. A delivery of a policy therefore, to an insurance broker, would be a delivery to his principal. He is a special agent. Unless employed generally to keep up his principal's insurance, he has no implied authority to return a policy to be cancelled, and notice to him that a policy had ceased, would not be notice to his principal.

An insurance broker must exercise reasonable care and diligence in selecting none but reliable companies, and in securing proper and sufficient policies to cover the risks placed to be covered by insurance; and if he selects companies which are then in good standing he would not be liable should they afterward become insolvent.

Merchandise brokers, unless factors, negotiate for the sale of merchandise without having possession or control of it. Like other agents they must serve faithfully and cannot act for both parties, seller and buyer, in the same transaction, without the knowledge and consent of both. In many transactions he does thus represent both by their express or implied authority, and therefore binding both when signing for them.

A real estate broker in the employ of his principal is bound to act for his principal alone, using his utmost good faith in his behalf. And a promise by one of the principals in an exchange of real estate, after the completion of the negotiations, to pay a commission to the other party's broker, to whom he owed nothing, is void for lack of a consideration.

[47]To gain his commission a broker must produce a person who was ready, able and willing both to accept and live up to the terms offered by the owner of the property. Nor can a property owner escape payment of a broker's commission by selling the land himself and at a price less than the limit put on the broker.

The business of a pawnbroker is legally regulated by statute, and the states usually require him to get a license. As the business may be prohibited, a municipality or other power may regulate and control his business. The rate of interest that he may charge is fixed by statute. The pawnee may lose his right by exacting unlawful interest. Nor has the pawnee the right to retain possession against the true owner of any article that has been pawned without his consent or authority. If the true owner has entrusted it to someone to sell, who, instead of selling, pawns it, the pawner is protected in taking it as security. The sale of pawned goods is usually regulated by statute. If none exists, and there is no agreement between the parties, the sale must be public after due notice of the time and place of sale. If there is any surplus, arising from the sale, he must pay it to the pawner, and not apply it on another debt that he may owe the pawnee. The pawner, or an assignee or purchaser of the pawn ticket may redeem it within the time fixed by law or agreement, or even beyond the agreed time if the pawnee has not exercised his right of sale. Subject to the pawnee's claim, the pawner has the same right over the article pawned as he had after pawning it, and may therefore sell and transfer his interest as before. Lastly the pawner is liable for any deficiency after the sale of the thing pawned, unless released by statute. See Agency.

"Etymology is the Illuminator of All Evil"

"G.O.D"

~HighLife